In Central America, the institutionalization of community engagement and accountability (CEA) has been key to guiding actions that place community voices at the centre of humanitarian response. This has been reflected in the development of audiovisual case studies – tools that not only document good practices but also highlight the experiences, concerns and proposals of affected people.

In 2022, the Honduran Red Cross and Guatemalan Red Cross produced participatory videos as part of their responses to Hurricanes Eta and Iota, as well as to COVID-19. In these videos, communities share their challenges and recovery processes in their own words, illustrating how active participation strengthens the relevance and effectiveness of the response.⁸

In 2023, under the Programmatic Partnership, actions were documented through an audiovisual case study. In one of these videos, Red Cross volunteers and staff explain why feedback mechanisms are essential in emergencies and humanitarian programmes. Feedback enables communities to share their opinions and is a cornerstone of the CEA approach within the IFRC network, ensuring that local voices are heard and integrated into decision-making.⁹

In 2024, through the Building Trust project, inter-institutional coordination was strengthened through active listening and community analysis. This strategy demonstrates how institutionalizing CEA not only improves communication but also transforms the way the IFRC designs and implements actions.¹⁰

Impact of CEA in public health emergencies – Guatemala (2023)

This case study,¹¹ part of a global research initiative commissioned by IFRC, analyses the impact of the CEA approach in the context of public health emergencies. The primary objective is to identify, understand and document how the implementation of CEA has influenced Red Cross programmes and community health systems in five countries: Indonesia, Guatemala, Guinea, Georgia and Malawi. In Guatemala, the 2023 study drew on lessons learned during the COVID-19 pandemic and its recovery phase.

The findings highlight that evidence-based actions, both qualitative and quantitative, are essential to guiding interventions that are more contextualized, relevant and sustainable. Combining statistical data with community narratives provides a more comprehensive understanding of the effects of humanitarian actions and the factors that influence their effectiveness. The use of structured feedback mechanisms, perception analysis and community-level information monitoring has significantly strengthened trust, programme relevance and public health outcomes.

Furthermore, effective impact measurement requires the strengthening of local capacities for data collection, analysis and ethical use. This underscores the need for sustained investment in technical training, methodological support and the recognition of community knowledge as a legitimate source for decision-making. Finally, the institutionalization of CEA, combined with its continuous evaluation, has demonstrated its potential to transform both humanitarian response and the relationship between communities and health systems.

Influencing public policy through CEA – Panama (2025)

This case study¹² analyses how the Panamanian Red Cross is leveraging its auxiliary role to the state and its active participation in governmental coordination spaces to influence public policy, promote more participatory and accountable disaster responses and strengthen its position as a key humanitarian actor in the country.

The National Society has actively promoted the CEA approach. Working in partnership with institutions such as the Ministry of Health and the Ombudsman’s Office, it has jointly established mechanisms to channel community feedback to the relevant authorities, contributing to improved quality and relevance of responses – as demonstrated during the 2024 dengue fever outbreak and flood emergencies.

The Panamanian Red Cross has also implemented targeted training initiatives (such as CEA in emergencies workshops) for its staff, government officials and inter-agency partners, as well as conducting knowledge, attitudes and practices surveys, and disseminating institutional policies.

The study highlights how this strategy has enhanced coordination, prevented duplication of aid efforts and increased community acceptance. It also underscores the importance of sustained investment in the institutionalization of CEA, including increasing geographic coverage, recruiting dedicated technical personnel and integrating CEA across all phases of programmes and operations.

Strengthening social cohesion through community-led evidence – Ecuador (2023)

This study promotes social cohesion between migrants and host communities through strategies grounded in community perspectives. By collecting direct insights from both groups, it avoids dependence on harmful, unverified narratives and supports an evidence-based, community-driven approach to humanitarian programming.¹³

Conducted by the IFRC and the Ecuadorian Red Cross in five neighbourhoods with high levels of interaction between local and migrant populations, the study gathered 837 responses – 61% from host communities and 39% from migrants. Findings show that motivations for migration, length of stay in the country and individual expectations strongly influence perceptions of belonging and coexistence. Longer stays often increase migrants’ intention to settle, creating opportunities for more sustainable and inclusive programming.

Key results reveal a shared interest in entrepreneurship and community-based economic activities, especially among women. However, 57% of migrants reported experiencing differential treatment based on nationality, particularly in public spaces. Female respondents reported more discrimination within neighbourhoods, while male respondents more frequently cited discrimination on public transport. These patterns highlight the need for localized, gender-sensitive and time-specific inclusion strategies.

While mutual cultural curiosity exists, gaps remain. Both groups expressed a willingness to engage more deeply through festivals, educational initiatives and shared experiences. Community-generated recommendations emphasize the importance of face-to-face interaction over digital-only engagement, showing a strong preference for direct, human-centred dialogue.

This research supports the development of programmes that are technically sound, ethically informed and socially rooted. It fosters trust by reinforcing the safe and responsible use of data and encourages the use of IFRC-approved artificial intelligence (AI) tools within a clear ethical framework. In doing so, it strengthens humanitarian response through inclusive, context-aware decision-making that reflects the voices of the people most affected.

The proliferation of disinformation and misinformation poses a significant and multifaceted threat to the Yemen Red Crescent Society, critically hindering its humanitarian operations and endangering the safety of its volunteers. False information reaches the National Society through social media, field reports, direct community interactions and its hotline, and manifests in several harmful ways. Examples include:

1. Challenges in humanitarian access and emblem misconceptions

   A persistent challenge has been the misinterpretation of emblems, particularly the Red Cross emblem. In some communities, the presence of this emblem on aid items and banners alongside the Yemen Red Crescent Society logo is misconstrued as a sign of religious affiliation among partners. This misunderstanding has negatively affected local interactions, reducing cooperation from community leaders and generating some opposition to National Society initiatives.

   The resulting misconceptions have created significant access barriers, directly impacting the Yemen Red Crescent Society’s ability to deliver aid and implement programmes effectively. To address this, it has prioritized humanitarian diplomacy by strengthening engagement with community decision-makers and influential figures. Through dialogue, the National Society has clarified the emblem’s universal humanitarian meaning and the neutral, independent nature of its partnerships. It has held numerous meetings to present its mandate, explain the purpose of its work and actively correct misconceptions. In addition, it is conducting focused operational communication sessions with community influencers. These sessions emphasize the humanitarian principles of neutrality, impartiality and independence. By proactively engaging with local leaders, the National Society aims to build trust, ensure its humanitarian mission is clearly understood and accepted, and strengthen community acceptance and support.

2. Building community trust through proactive communication

   Proactive transparency and communication: At the heart of this success lies the principle of radical transparency. During all aid distributions – whether for floods, other disasters or cash assistance programmes – the Yemen Red Crescent Society prominently displays banners with clear and detailed eligibility criteria. These banners specify the exact conditions for receiving aid, along with the items and quantities being distributed. This simple yet powerful measure leaves no room for ambiguity and directly counters harmful rumours that certain individuals or groups are being unfairly excluded. By shifting the conversation from speculation to shared understanding of the distribution process, it ensures communities know how and why decisions are made, reinforcing trust in the distribution process.

   Empowering communities through accountability: Beyond transparency, the Yemen Red Crescent Society has strengthened accountability by providing community members with direct channels for feedback and complaints. Dedicated complaint booths and hotlines at distribution sites encourage both beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries to voice their concerns. What could otherwise be a point of friction is transformed into an opportunity for direct engagement: trained staff can immediately address issues, clarify targeting criteria and explain the humanitarian principles guiding the National Society’s work. This proactive feedback loop not only resolves concerns but also demonstrates its commitment to fairness and accountability, reinforcing its role as a trusted partner.

   Over time, this strategy has both addressed immediate issues and fundamentally changed the perception of the Yemen Red Crescent Society’s work in the most vulnerable communities. By turning a source of damaging rumours into a story of trust and community empowerment, the organization has solidified its reputation as an accountable and reliable humanitarian actor.

1. What examples from your work illustrate how harmful information has affected humanitarian response, access or community trust?

   Around one-quarter (23%) of the population in Kyrgyzstan was vaccinated with at least one dose of a COVID-19 vaccine as of December 2023 (WHO), one of the lowest coverage rates in the region despite availability of vaccines. Vaccine hesitancy during the COVID-19 pandemic translated into a broader distrust in vaccines afterwards, including routine childhood immunization. As a result, vaccine refusals increased markedly following the COVID-19 pandemic – a trend seen globally, but particularly pronounced in Kyrgyzstan.

   In 2023, with IFRC support, the Red Crescent Society of Kyrgyzstan conducted a perception study on routine immunization, which provided deeper insights into people’s perceptions towards vaccination.¹⁴ Anti-vaccination sentiment continues to grow in the country. The Ministry of Health of Kyrgyzstan maintains a database of vaccine refusals – where parents or guardians of eligible children officially register their decision through a refusal form. According to the Republican Center for Immunoprophylaxis (the Ministry of Health’s main technical agency for immunization), newly registered refusals rose sharply after the pandemic from over 10,000 in 2021, 20,496 in 2022, 20,486 in 2023 and 19,760 in 2024.

   In 2024, 93% of vaccine-eligible children received the second dose at the age of two (WHO Immunisation Data portal – Global). While this represents strong coverage, it remains below the recommended 95% threshold needed to achieve herd immunity. As a result, the country experienced a surge in measles cases in 2023, 2024 and 2025. In 2023, there were 7,046 confirmed cases; in 2024, the number rose sharply to 24,380 cases; and in 2025, more than 9,000 cases were reported.

2. How do you define or recognize harmful information in your context and who do you see as most affected by it?

   In the case of harmful information about childhood vaccinations, it is ultimately children who bear the consequences of their parents and caregivers being influenced by harmful information on vaccination. For example, measles and rubella vaccinations in Kyrgyzstan are administered at the ages of one and two years, when children are too young to have any voice in the decision. The human cost is stark: in Kyrgyzstan, nine children died from measles-related complications in 2023, five in 2024 and ten in 2025.

3. What strategies or tools have you used or seen used effectively to respond to harmful information during disasters or crises?

   Strategies used by the National Society to address vaccine hesitancy in programmes promoting COVID-19 vaccination and childhood vaccinations include:

   • Engaging religious leaders and community leaders: In Kyrgyzstan, vaccine hesitancy is often driven by false beliefs, for example, that vaccines made in certain countries are less safe or effective or that they may not meet Halal requirements. Leveraging its established relationships with local leaders and trusted figures, the Red Crescent Society of Kyrgyzstan is well-positioned to manage rumours and counter misinformation – an essential part of building trust and improving health outcomes. This approach has proven effective. Between April and September 2025, trained Red Crescent volunteers worked with 337 religious leaders, equipping them to share accurate information and encourage immunization among their communities. These leaders continue to explain the importance of vaccination from a religious perspective, using messages that combine evidence-based health information with religious interpretations.

   • Listening to communities and adapting communication strategies: the Red Crescent Society of Kyrgyzstan has well-established community feedback channels, including hotlines, community meetings and digital platforms, ensuring that community concerns are regularly collected, analysed and acted on. Staff are trained in active listening and respectful communication, allowing for effective feedback management. Based on community input, it adapts its key messages to better respond to concerns.

   • Reaching out individually with vaccine-hesitant parents: Despite the Ministry of Health’s efforts, there remains a group of parents hesitant about vaccination, leaving children zero-dose or under-immunized. Building on its earlier work (reaching more than 2,000 families with zero-dose children in 2023–2024), the National Society has found that one-to-one engagement is often required. Trained volunteers visit households – working alongside local health workers – to address fears and hesitations through active listening, emotional support and accurate, tailored information.

   • Engaging social media and mass media: In Kyrgyzstan, harmful information spreads largely through social media. To counter this, since 2023 the National Society partners with bloggers and influencers who share accurate information and positive vaccination experiences with their followers. At the same time, it supports parents and caregivers who actively promote childhood vaccination on social media and other public forums. To reach wider audiences, it also works with mass media agencies creating content and disseminating messages through radio broadcasts and television segments.

4. How does harmful information influence relationships with local communities, volunteers or authorities in your setting?

   Based on the Red Crescent Society of Kyrgyzstan’s experience promoting COVID-19 vaccination during the pandemic, it was observed that even when volunteers successfully encouraged people to seek vaccination at local health clinics, some health practitioners themselves discouraged people from receiving the COVID-19 vaccine. A similar pattern was observed during responses to a surge of cases of measles, where certain health practitioners turned away parents and children, citing potential side effects. This highlights that efforts to counter harmful information must be fully supported by health services and that strengthening public trust in health practitioners and the health system remains essential.

For many years, Ecuador has faced an environment of constant social mobilizations that have shaped the humanitarian action of the Ecuadorian Red Cross. These complex scenarios have influenced its institutional response, transformed communication dynamics and redefined its presence on social media and other communication channels.

For example, a 2019 presidential decree eliminating the gasoline subsidy triggered strong social unrest in Ecuador and resulted in social mobilizations that lasted for 11 days. The level of violence intensified as major roads were blocked, cities became isolated, and shortages of food, medicine and other essential goods were reported. In response, the Ecuadorian Red Cross activated its response teams, operating in line with pre-established emergency plans.

Amid the crisis, disinformation spread rapidly on social media following the release of a video showing an ambulance in Quito’s historic centre distributing equipment intended for police officers, such as bulletproof vests and tear gas canisters. The post quickly went viral and had serious consequences for the Red Cross, though it did not involve a Red Cross vehicle. The misleading and malicious narrative led to emergency vehicles being stopped and inspected to verify whether they were transporting patients or supplies. There were difficulties in transporting blood components, delays in emergency care, tyres punctured by sharp objects, and rocks thrown at four ambulances clearly marked with the Red Cross emblem even while using sirens and flashing lights to reach injured individuals. The spread of false information generated mistrust, uncertainty and the word-of-mouth repetition at protest sites further weakened the credibility of first response organizations, undermining humanitarian action and compromising life-saving operations at a critical time.

Following the events of October 2019 and in the lead-up to the protest movements of June 2022, humanitarian diplomacy with all involved organizations became a key tool to counter disinformation that could directly impact the work of the Ecuadorian Red Cross. The dissemination of key messages through social media was a vital part of this strategy. Implementation took place at all levels under the leadership of the National Society President and Secretary General and in coordination with the management and operations teams throughout the country. The main objectives were to reinforce that Red Cross action is based on the principles of neutrality and impartiality that underpin its humanitarian work, and to prevent harmful information from undermining this work.

Complementary actions were carried out, including:

1. Strengthening the institutional image through the proper use of uniforms by all personnel.

2. Disseminating informational content about the Ecuadorian Red Cross ambulances to facilitate their identification and distinguish them from the vehicles used by other institutions.

3. Promoting the Fundamental Principles of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement as pillars of humanitarian action.

4. Implementing the campaign ‘We Are Not a Target,’ aimed at raising awareness about the neutral role of ambulances in emergency response.

5. Disseminating key messages in both traditional and alternative media to highlight the role of the Red Cross.

These actions are part of a strategy aimed at raising public awareness about the humanitarian role of the Ecuadorian Red Cross in the context of social mobilizations. The initiative is reinforced through the use of accessible language – including Kichwa, as the predominant language in Indigenous communities – with the purpose of strengthening understanding and acceptance of Red Cross interventions.

For three decades, the Canadian Red Cross has partnered with more than 500 Indigenous communities across a vast and diverse geography. This work is anchored in the Indigenous Peoples Framework and its four pillars – reconciliation, cultural safety, collaboration and community-led service delivery – which together provide a principled, organization-wide approach to localized, accountable humanitarian action with Indigenous communities.

The framework recognizes that trust is built differently with Indigenous Peoples. The Canadian Red Cross invests in direct, recurring touchpoints with local points of contact, Indigenous community leadership, elders and community-based advisories, and provides critical information in Indigenous languages. These modalities keep engagement grounded in community priorities and help close information gaps where harmful information can emerge along the pre-crisis to post-crisis continuum. Lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic reinforced this approach: as many Indigenous Nations across Canada exercised sovereignty by closing their borders to protect residents, the Canadian Red Cross maintained two-way communication through dedicated virtual operations capacity and secure, trusted channels.

Today’s enduring climate risks heighten the need for this model. Although Indigenous Peoples comprise about 5% of Canada’s population, they accounted for an estimated 42% of wildfire evacuations in 2023,¹⁷ and 16% of disaster-related displacements.¹⁸ In response, the National Society prioritizes adaptable, localized delivery through mobile teams, embedded liaisons, in-language communications, and evidence-informed preparedness and evacuation supports – ensuring needs are met before, during and after crises while strengthening community resilience.

The Indigenous Peoples Framework aligns with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and is grounded in the principle of free, prior and informed consent. The Canadian Red Cross upholds Indigenous data sovereignty: information shared by communities remains their property and is stewarded according to community protocols. These commitments underpin transparency and position the National Society as a partner of choice across First Nations, Inuit, Métis, urban, remote and northern contexts. Through the framework, it continues to walk alongside Indigenous communities by building trust, reinforcing local capacities and ensuring humanitarian action remains people first, culturally safe and led by the priorities of the communities it serves.

Case 1: Why community engagement in early warnings matters

A recent study²² in Malawi’s Nsanje and Phalombe districts showed community engagement is central to how climate change information is shared, trusted and acted on. Most people receive climate and early-warning information through community meetings led by trusted local actors – primarily government officers, NGOs, the Malawi Red Cross Society, local leaders and extension workers. These actors use familiar methods such as megaphones and direct dialogue to foster understanding and prompt action. Formal early warnings – including flood or drought alerts – are disseminated through radio broadcasts, local government officials and NGOs.

However, many community-based structures, such as village civil protection committees, lack the training and resources to share warnings consistently and independently, creating reliance on external actors. In Phalombe, younger and more digitally connected populations also turn to social media and local news, reflecting an evolving landscape of trusted communication.

Importantly, effective communication builds on existing community networks – women’s groups, youth clubs and local committees – that blend scientific forecasts with Indigenous knowledge. As one local organization staff member explained,

We use the Department of Climate Change and Meteorology Services for seasonal forecasts, but committees say things like ‘the hippopotamus was walking from the river to the community,’ meaning it smells a flood. So, the community relies more on Indigenous information than on scientific forecasts.”

This community-rooted approach strengthens the ability to detect and respond to harmful information, building resilience before, during and after crises. Grounding early warning systems in trusted, familiar community structures and communication methods helps humanitarian actors address misinformation and disinformation, ensuring timely and actionable information reaches those who need it most.

Case 2: A community-first approach to navigating harmful information during COVID-19

Harmful information thrives where trust is weak or communities’ information needs go unmet. The IFRC’s commitment to CEA – embedded in its policies and Strategy 2030 – recognizes that meaningful, inclusive community participation is essential for building mutual trust and sustainable resilience.

In an era shaped by misinformation and disinformation, trust-building and inclusive, actionable communication are vital. Recent research²³ from Georgia, Guatemala, Guinea, Indonesia and Malawi – where National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies applied CEA approaches during COVID-19 to counter harmful information through localized, trusted networks – highlights the following key findings:

• Georgia:²⁴ Leveraging local authorities, youth volunteers and trusted community spaces helped combat vaccine rumours. “I am not a passive participant … I suggested to the Red Cross to organize a first aid course in my village and they did.” (Community leader.) Key insight: Trusted local actors are essential to counter misinformation and prevent further marginalization.

• Guatemala:²⁵ Cultural complexity and social divisions fuelled distrust and misinformation. Collaboration with Indigenous councils, schools and women’s leaders helped tailor messages to local realities. Key insight: Community-led, culturally resonant communication counters disinformation that draws on lived experiences.

• Guinea:²⁶ Experience from past epidemics fostered trust in traditional leaders and peer educators who used storytelling and local theatre to challenge rumours. “Before, we didn’t dare, but thanks to persistent awareness and guidance, we dared to get vaccinated. We trusted the Red Cross volunteers because they are from the community.” (Community member.) Key insight: Past epidemic memory strengthens resilience against harmful information when combined with two-way communication.

• Indonesia:²⁷ Facing physical isolation and digital disinformation, collaboration with religious leaders and women’s groups enabled culturally adapted messaging through offline channels such as radio and community rituals. Key insight: While harmful information spreads digitally, trusted face-to-face communication remains a powerful corrective.

• Malawi:²⁸ Concurrent COVID-19 and cholera outbreaks fuelled fear, rumours and vaccine scepticism, including misinformation about infertility. Direct engagement with traditional leaders, health workers, youth and women’s groups – through household visits and dialogue – helped rebuild trust eroded by inconsistent messaging. Early delays in integrating community feedback limited initial responses to falsehoods. Key insight: Compounded crises amplify harmful information. Timely, inclusive and consistent messaging delivered by trusted peers is essential to restore confidence.

Case 3: Nepal:²⁹ Rebuilding trust in vaccines through persistent, local engagement

In Nepal, trust was not built through mass messaging but through repeated, personal interactions. In rural Banke district – hit hard by COVID-19 and vaccine misinformation – trust began to grow when locally known Red Cross volunteers made household visits and listened without judgement. Demonstrating the vaccine’s safety first-hand proved more persuasive than technical facts alone.

Communities need space to ask questions and see proof, not just follow instructions. Rumours about infertility and vaccine trials spread quickly, but Red Cross volunteers stayed embedded in the community addressing misinformation through door-to-door visits, radio messages and by modelling healthy behaviours. Having the same volunteer return repeatedly helped shift scepticism into confidence.

At the onset of the crisis, the lack of clear, trusted information left people vulnerable to fear and falsehoods. As the pandemic evolved, so did the community’s need for more nuanced, timely information – especially during the vaccine rollout. Pre-existing mistrust made initial outreach difficult, but continued engagement helped move people from resistance to vaccine advocacy.

The Nepal Red Cross mobilized over 3,000 local volunteers, reaching more than 3 million people with culturally appropriate, localized communication. This hyperlocal, face-to-face model built lasting resilience – against COVID-19 misinformation and potentially for future public health crises as well. Empowered community members became messengers themselves, showing how trusted engagement creates ripple effects that strengthen community confidence.

Safeguarding in the humanitarian sector aims to prevent and protect people from harm caused by humanitarian actors delivering responses, including harm from sexual exploitation, abuse and harassment. Harmful or inadequate information, whether deliberate or unintentional, can undermine safeguarding by silencing survivors, deterring reporting or spreading false accusations that damage trust in complaint mechanisms. Misinformation can distort perceptions of what behaviour is and is not acceptable, and who is safe to approach, while disinformation may be used to discredit whistleblowers or cover up abuse.

Increasingly, sexually explicit or illegal materials are used to intimidate, harass, extort or discredit individuals. Intimate images may be edited, misused or circulated without consent; false rumours can target staff or community members; fake profiles or forged documents can manipulate perceptions and distort aid delivery and distribution models, reinforcing inequality and exclusion; and AI tools can create harmful fake content. Such narratives can erode community confidence in humanitarian actors and prevent access to protection services, reducing accountability and the humanitarian ‘licence to operate’.

Addressing this risk requires proactive communication: clear, consistent messaging on safeguarding commitments; transparent reporting processes; and staff, volunteer and community feedback mechanisms that are safe, accessible and trusted. By integrating safeguarding into information and communication strategies, humanitarian organizations can both protect individuals and reinforce the trust that underpins effective, accountable humanitarian action.

Japan’s unique linguistic and media environment provides a partial buffer against the global spread of harmful information. Because Japanese is spoken almost exclusively inside the country, the language itself acts as a kind of firewall, limiting the impact of harmful information campaigns circulating in other languages. Japan’s strong domestic media landscape – including public broadcasters – also helps shape a more contained information environment. This reduces dependence on foreign media sources and helps limit exposure to externally driven harmful narratives.

Social media usage patterns also differ in Japan. Platforms like LINE and X (formerly Twitter) are more commonly used than platforms like WhatsApp or Facebook. This creates a different digital ecosystem, where harmful information tends to be more localized and less influenced by international trends.

The Japanese Red Cross Society has consistently maintained a strong public communication strategy that contributes to trust and transparency. It offers information to donors, volunteers and members of the public primarily through its official website, social media accounts (X, Instagram, Facebook, YouTube), a monthly newspaper and other regular publications. Whenever a disaster occurs in Japan or abroad, it promptly communicates Japanese Red Cross Society disaster relief operations to donors and the public. In all donor communications, it directs people to clear explanatory resources such as its donation guide. As a result, instances of harmful information targeting the National Society have been extremely rare in Japan. Trust is cultivated not only through emergency communication, but through consistent, transparent dialogue over time.

In the Sahel and Central Africa region, rumour and disinformation have a devastating impact. One example comes from the Central African Republic (CAR), where local populations shared how false news of an imminent conflict prompted several families to flee their homes, abandoning their possessions and deepening distrust among neighbours. Fondation Hirondelle has been working in the region for over 30 years. In our view, the main global risk linked to misinformation, malinformation and disinformation – which are increasing with digitalization and the rise of generative AI – is that of epistemic rupture. This concept refers to the breakdown of thought structures within a social group and it is unfolding along three fault lines:

• A growing segment of the population is being drawn into counterfactual narratives.
• The capacity for dialogue between those with opposing views is eroding, fuelling polarization.
• Less-connected, under-resourced populations – particularly those speaking marginalized languages – are being excluded from the production and sharing of knowledge.

To address this risk, it is not enough to merely counter disinformation as this approach is inherently reactive. Instead, there must be proactive and preventive investment in promoting information integrity.³⁴

1. Fill the information vacuum:

   The first step in this preventive approach is to act before rumour and disinformation become the most accessible response to the insecurity caused by a lack of credible information. This is best achieved by strengthening the capacity of local journalists and media to provide trustworthy, timely and relevant information that is accessible and in local languages and available across both online and offline platforms. This approach precedes fact-checking, which aims to identify and react to disinformation after it has already spread. It also differs from prebunking (see Annex I: Glossary, on page 353), which focuses narrowly on topics likely to attract falsehoods.

   Promoting information integrity, by contrast, seeks to meet the broader information needs of communities. Scientific literature confirms that supporting local journalism is one of the most effective ways to prevent disinformation.³⁵ Research conducted in CAR, in partnership with US-based academic partners, also confirmed the effectiveness of a journalistic approach in building audience trust and helping people differentiate fact from fiction in contexts where disinformation is pervasive.³⁶

   The key conditions for this preventive approach to have a positive impact are:

   Grounding in journalistic ethics: Local journalists not only require proper training but also sufficient technical and financial resources to uphold professional standards. Their editorial independence must also be upheld. Blurring the line between the role of journalist and that of a spokesperson, activist or lobbyist promoting a particular point of view undermines public trust in journalism itself. Moreover, they need safety. Journalists are protected under international humanitarian law: as civilians, they must not be deliberately targeted and their equipment and installations must be respected.

   Ensuring proximity and inclusivity: A journalist must be first and foremost a good listener – someone who actively seeks to hear and understand the diverse perspectives and information needs of their audience. This requires a local presence and proximity that enables journalists to connect with different communities, including the most marginalized, and to build trust. Proximity must be not only geographic, but linguistic: journalists must be able to communicate in local languages and in a manner that is accessible to their audience.

   Accessibility also depends on the technologies used to share content. We recommend a hybrid (offline and online) and generalist (covering all types of news) approach to reach the widest possible audience. This involves producing content in various formats – audio, text and video – for multiple platforms, including TV, radio, newspapers, websites, social media and messaging apps, and in multiple languages. Content should be tailored to the needs of diverse population segments, especially the most vulnerable. This includes young people and women who are often among the first targets of discriminatory speech yet also play a critical role in spreading information within families and communities.

   Digital technologies and AI can enhance the ability to listen at scale and improve the efficiency of content production. However, these tools come at a cost and require training and adaptation of professional practices. They also raise ethical concerns and must be used transparently. All AI-generated content must be reviewed by humans to avoid the spread of incomplete, unsourced or reductive information – or even disinformation. This is particularly critical in situations of armed conflict, humanitarian crisis and digital divide. AI systems operate primarily on digitalized data in majority languages; they are not neutral and often reflect cultural, linguistic and ideological biases. These technologies can support, but not replace, field presence, contextual expertise and human connection.

2. Improve information and media literacy, through the media and with communities:

   Alongside efforts to improve the supply of information by enhancing the quality and accessibility of informative content, a second vital step in preventing the impacts of disinformation is to improve the demand side. This involves strengthening the ability of audiences to evaluate the quality of the content they encounter, choose to consume and share.

   Information and media literacy through the media can be fostered in two key ways. First, through greater transparency, by explaining how journalists gather, process and prioritize information. Second, by developing dedicated features such as regular fact-checking segments and educational programming focused on subjects vulnerable to disinformation.

   Such initiatives help alert audiences and raise awareness by using concrete examples of disinformation, while also offering ways in which they can guard against it. In parallel, and drawing on the example of Fondation Hirondelle’s media work across the Sahel and Central Africa, physical spaces for discussion and dialogue can be established in neighbourhoods or villages to talk about the information circulating in a community. These forums – led by local journalists in partnership with community radio stations, local leaders or mediators – create opportunities to clarify rumours and share verified information. Additionally, interactive public programmes recorded live in communities, rather than in studios, allow opportunities for community members to learn how the media works.

Volunteers play a crucial role in building resilience within their communities, branches and National Societies. They enhance each system’s ability to withstand and recover from disruptions or stressors – precisely because they are an integral part of those systems. It is important to think of ‘community’ in a broad and inclusive sense: communities can include schools, sports centres, churches, digital platforms, social and support services, LGBTQ+ groups, neighbourhoods and more.

One of the most significant challenges facing humanitarian volunteers today is the emotional toll of dealing with hate speech and the constant flow of misinformation and disinformation. Volunteers are proud to serve and to be part of the world’s largest humanitarian movement. That sense of identity can feel under threat when harmful or misleading information, especially hate speech, targets the systems they represent, whether at the community, branch or national level.

At the Italian Red Cross, we’ve learned through responding to emergencies, crises and disasters, including the COVID-19 pandemic, that restoring balance is closely linked to prevention and preparedness. This lesson also applies to information-related challenges. Strengthening media literacy and building a strategic approach to harmful information are essential components of building resilience.

We can and should develop clear strategies to respond to harmful information. Preparation is key. Not everyone has the time, training or expertise to fact-check content, analyse sources, interpret emotionally charged language or assess the credibility of online content. These are skills that require time and dedication.

Well-trained volunteers and informed community members are invaluable in meeting this challenge. Structured activities focused on filtering information – identifying reliable sources, validating content and distinguishing between trustworthy and misleading narratives – should be clearly defined and included in preparedness and response plans, with volunteers and community members actively involved. This work must take place across all levels: within the community, branches, headquarters and in collaboration with stakeholders and partners who bring relevant expertise.

Finally, acknowledgement and empathy are essential. Harmful information is part of our daily reality and its spread is accelerating. We must recognize – and remind others – that being affected by harmful information is not a sign of naivety or ignorance. It touches everyone, everywhere – including managers, leaders and people with strong cultural or educational backgrounds. We must confront it together, as one Movement.

Drawing on BBC Media Action’s experience across dozens of countries and crises, several principles can be identified for strengthening community trust and resilience against harmful information:

1. Start with listening: trust is built on two-way communication. Listening to concerns, questions and perceptions – even when they involve misunderstandings or harmful narratives – creates a basis for respectful engagement and more effective response.

2. Invest before the crisis: building trusted communication channels, supporting independent local media and forming partnerships with community leaders are pre-crisis tasks. These relationships determine how quickly and credibly information will be accepted in emergencies.

3. Build community capacity: to communicate within their own communities and represent community interests within the systems designed to help them.

4. Work through trusted messengers: community trust often rests with individuals – local radio hosts, health workers, religious leaders – who may not be part of formal humanitarian networks. Supporting and equipping these voices ensures vital information reaches people in ways they believe and will act on.

5. Make communication locally relevant: language, tone, timing and framing all matter. Messages must address real community concerns, using local languages, familiar formats and relatable stories that link advice to people’s lived realities.

6. Be transparent about uncertainty: in fast-changing crises, it is better to explain what is not yet known than to risk later corrections that damage credibility. Acknowledging uncertainty fosters trust and reduces the space for harmful speculation.

7. Embed verification and trust signals: in an age of AI-generated and manipulated content, adopt verifiable methods, such as content provenance technologies, e.g., the Coalition for Content Provenance and Authenticity (C2PA), to make humanitarian information identifiable, authentic and harder to impersonate.

8. Sustain engagement after the crisis: post-crisis communication is essential for recovery, learning and preparation. It also helps maintain trust networks so they can be activated quickly in the next emergency.

By grounding these principles in long-term partnerships and shared ownership of the information space, humanitarian actors can build communities’ resilience from the inside out, reducing the space for harmful information and strengthening the social fabric that underpins effective crisis response.

In late October 2024, Valencia was struck by one of Spain’s deadliest floods in recent history, caused by a DANA (Depresión Aislada en Niveles Altos, or ‘cold drop’). Intense rain fell over several hours, overwhelming infrastructure, leaving 236 people dead and devastating communities.

Specific incidents of harmful information against the Spanish Red Cross spread on social media including negative comments, insults and threats. In response, all Spanish Red Cross communications on other topics, both nationally and locally, were paused on social media. We established centralized control over all press and social media communications across our 1,200 offices in Spain. In the first week, we set up and trained a 24-hour monitoring and response team of 30 members.

The most harmful messages to our reputation were identified and reviewed for possible responses. We replied directly to the false messages that had the most interactions. When replying only through social media was not sufficient, we contacted press experts and verification websites who analyse fake news. We then used their verified responses as reference links on our social media channels.

Dedicated monitoring of the DANA case began immediately on the night of 29 October. For greater reliability, we used two listening tools simultaneously – Clarabridge and Talkwalker – which allowed us to find and resolve possible monitoring gaps that emerged. Through these actions, we were able to detect new threats in real time and prepare responses. However, some cases – such as accusations about financial issues – were too complex to address quickly, which allowed certain false claims to spread for longer.

Some people in areas where we had not yet been able to help also began to criticize us. A small number of volunteers who wanted to help, but had not been mobilized, joined the criticism, expressing disagreement with our actions on the ground. Some political parties that do not support the Red Cross also used this moment to criticize the Spanish Red Cross. Certain people affected by the crisis who aligned with these parties even shouted at us in the street. However, the majority of people we helped expressed their support.

Since the first day of the DANA, there has been a sharp increase in messages against the Red Cross. In November and December, our social media mentions rose by 5,000%, with around 75% of these being negative messages, an increase of 8,824% from the previous two months.

In November and December alone, the newspaper La Gaceta published 32 articles criticizing the Spanish Red Cross. During the same period, some politicians posted 104 messages against the Spanish Red Cross. Pro-Israel groups also seized the opportunity to amplify the posts against the Red Cross.

Most of the accounts attacking us were anonymous. While much of the criticism focused on the DANA, it also targeted issues such as migration, the financial management of the Spanish Red Cross and claims that the Red Cross was not present and working on the ground.

The harmful information spread about our National Society and other humanitarian actors in this case did not have a significant impact on public institutions, as they were being attacked equally – along with civil society in general. However, it did impact some of the companies that collaborate with us, which were also targeted. The broader public impact was evident in the many questions raised on social media, as well as by individual members contributing through their membership fees.

Lessons learned and opportunities for improvement

Team resizing: The internal expansion of the social media and press team would have been more effective if it had been carried out earlier in the emergency. At the time, we lacked local or international references on the right timing; now we have learned when such adjustments should be made.

Partnerships and external support: Engaging a reputation management agency earlier would have been more beneficial. A temporary upgrade of monitoring and response tools could also have strengthened our capacity. Our partnerships with media groups proved to be key in the crisis management.

In the Spanish Red Cross social media protocol (an internal document), introduced in January 2025, we now outline steps to follow in any emergency or communication crisis. It sets out, step by step, the roles and responsibilities of each person, warning levels, risk assessment measures and corresponding actions. Over the year following the DANA, we strengthened the completeness of information across all communications, including internal communication and brand protection. Alongside the crisis and social media protocol, all our social media accounts are protected with triple security measures, with a limited number of people holding full access rights.

We have also redefined our global communication strategy, recognizing that such incidents are likely to recur. In addition, we actively participate in various groups and initiatives on harmful information from a communications perspective, including within the Movement, on the Plataforma del Tercer Sector (Third Sector Platform), and in a new initiative led by the Spanish Government’s communications department in collaboration with other humanitarian actors’ communications teams.

Recommendations

1. Greater involvement of Red Cross volunteers in social media is needed. Establishing a digital volunteer group to serve as brand ambassadors and defenders, in a systematic way, could be effective.

2. Better regulation of social media accounts, as account anonymity is increasingly harmful, allowing false messages and hate speech to spread without accountability. The same laws that apply offline should also apply online.

Observations

1. Disinformation accusing the Spanish Red Cross of prioritizing helping migrants and/or people overseas over Spanish citizens undermines the perception of the principle of impartiality.

2. Disinformation accusing the Spanish Red Cross of supporting government immigration policies undermines the perception of our principles of independence and neutrality.

3. Disinformation alleging that the Spanish Red Cross is not present on the ground undermines the perception of the principle of humanity.